The spiritual life of society through the prism of the activity of libraries in Europe at the intersection of the Middle Ages and Modern Times

Markova Elizaveta Vladimirovna ORCID: 0009-0009-6682-2000 Postgraduate student, Department of Socio-Political Communications, National Research Nizhny Novgorod State University named after N. I. Lobachevsky 23 Gagarin Ave., Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod region, 603022, Russia markovaev11@yandex.ru Other publications by this author

Introduction

One of the most studied periods in history is considered to be the period of the so–called "witch hunt", which acquired an extraordinary scope in the countries of Europe of the XVI - XVII centuries. The paradox lies in the fact that researchers still do not give a clear answer to what is the reason for the appearance of this phenomenon in this particular period of time. Increased interest in demonology was noted during the late Renaissance, Baroque and even early Enlightenment periods. The fact that the last executions of "wizards and witches" took place in England in 1684, in Scotland in 1722, in France in 1745, and finally in Germany in 1775 arouse some interest among modern researchers.

Many historians have written about the problems of the "witch hunt" [Stolyarov, 2019; Martynova, 2022; Volodarsky, Kozhevnikov, 2023], religious scholars and philosophers [Denisova, 2022; Chernykh, 2022; Badzev, Ivanov, Movsisyan, 2023; Glukhov, 2023], philologists and linguists [Karpov, 2022; Lebedeva, 2022; Schultz, 2022], lawyers and journalists [Ostryanova, 2022; Ponomarev, 2022], art historians [Pigulevsky, Mirskaya, 2022].

The temporology of the "witch hunt" is also interesting from the point of view of the emergence of the so-called "civilized world" during this period, which may cause certain reflections on its nature. The "hunt" was opposed by leading theologians of both Western faiths – Father Spee, P. Reimann, H. Thomasius and A. Tanner. At the same time, she was supported by well–known "humanists" and New European thinkers - M. Ficino, J. Bodin, T. Hobbes and J. Vico. Faced with this paradox, modern researchers prefer to talk about the "mystery" and "uncertainty" of our knowledge and available data in this confusing issue [Monter, 1969; Midelfort, 1972].

Researcher A.Ya. Kozhurin connects this phenomenon with emerging New European science [Kozhurin, 2024]. The aim of our study is to expand the study of A.Ya. Kozhurin and to find out the mutual influence of libraries in Europe on the phenomenon of "witch persecution". This topic seems relevant, since at the moment no detailed research on this topic has been found in the scientific segment.

Libraries were centers of knowledge and education. They contained manuscripts, books, and other written materials that were accessible only to a limited number of people. Libraries were located in monasteries, universities and palaces, and their purpose was to preserve and disseminate knowledge. Monks and scholars used libraries to explore and research various topics, including philosophy, religion, science, and history.

However, at that time there was also a struggle against witches in Europe. Witches were considered enemies of the church and society, and they were persecuted and burned at the stake. Witches were accused of witchcraft, associating with the devil and harming other people. Witches were often women who did not meet the standards of the time, and they were persecuted as "deviating" from social norms.

Libraries and the fight against witches had some interaction. The Church used its power and influence to control access to knowledge stored in libraries. They feared that some books and manuscripts might contain "misconceptions" or "witchcraft" that could threaten their power. This led to some books being banned or destroyed, and some scholars and monks being accused of witchcraft and persecuted.

The fight against witches has also influenced public opinion about women and their role in society. Women who showed independence or did not meet the standards of the time could be accused of witchcraft and persecuted. This created an atmosphere of fear and oppression that limited women's freedom and opportunities.

The period we are considering is a transitional one, we can say a turning point, a "divisive one". The medieval ideas about the structure of the world, systematized by the outstanding scientists of that time, collapsed, and a new "picture of the world" was just beginning to take shape. From the "cracks" formed as a result of the crisis of the medieval worldview, ideas about evil spirits in all forms accessible to human imagination flooded into the world. A person could communicate with "evil spirits", seek to come into contact with demons, including legally, and conclude "contracts with demons". The general concept was the belief in the supernatural abilities of some representatives of humanity, and this belief became a kind of "common place" for that time.

Libraries served as centers of knowledge and education, while the fight against witches reflected the social and religious norms of the time. These two spheres interacted with each other, influencing society and its perception of knowledge and women.

Object and methods of research

The article provides an overview of some historical sources in order to clarify the influence of European libraries on the phenomenon of witch hunts in the context of certain chronological frameworks and socio-political conditions. The object of the study is the literature and libraries of Europe in transition. The problem-chronological method was used to study the influence of libraries on the phenomenon of witch hunting. The basis of the research consists of the main principles of historical science. Historicism and scientific research make it possible to assume the main influence of European libraries on the phenomenon of witch hunts according to the chronology of events against the background of the specified historical period of time. At the same time, the array of historical materials found and currently published is strictly taken into account. General scientific and special historical methods constitute the methodology of the presented research. In this study, comparative historical and descriptive approaches of the above historical sources were used. Using these methods of processing archival documents, information on the influence of European libraries on the phenomenon of witch hunts is revealed on the basis of available sources.

Results and their discussion

1. "Witch hunt" in Europe

In his extensive monograph devoted to the history of book culture, the famous researcher Y.N. Stolyarov discovered one of the most important sources that gave book culture not only form, but also meaning. He is sure that religion, with its esoteric and mystical roots, as well as its antipodes, such as "renounced books", magic and the occult, have played an important role in the formation and development of book culture. These areas of knowledge and practices related to mysterious and hidden aspects of existence permeated literary creations and contributed to the formation of a special type of reading and thought. Magical and esoteric literature have become important elements of the history of book culture, surprisingly influencing the formation of readers' tastes and ideas about the world. It is very interesting that written sources related to religious and mystical teachings played the role of intermediaries between heaven and earth, between the divine and the mundane. These books, which sincerely capture the minds and imagination, expanded the boundaries of human thought and made an important contribution to book culture, remaining eternal witnesses of the era [Stolyarov, 2017, 318-357]. Speaking about the activities of medieval libraries in relation to the "witch hunt", it is necessary to mention a certain censorship effect of the phenomenon of "witch hunting" on the activities of European libraries. Then Christianity began to claim economic, political and, of course, spiritual dominance in society.

Thus, the church began to actively interfere in people's lives and tried to eradicate all manifestations of "diabolical" influence. She conducted inquisitions, tortures, and executions to get rid of sorcerers, heretics, and other "enemies of the faith." At that time, faith was considered an integral part of state power, and the church had great power.

One of the most famous and bloody inquisitions was the Spanish Inquisition, which lasted for more than three centuries and led to many deaths of innocent people. Just because of suspicion of witchcraft, heresy or other "diabolical" deeds, many people were subjected to severe punishment.

Such persecution was based on the idea that the devil and his minions influenced every aspect of life and secular society. The Church saw enemies in everything that deviated from its teachings and appeals. She sought to protect the faith and faithful parishioners from the "danger" posed by anything that could be associated with the devil.

The ecclesiastical court acted as judges in these persecutions of heretics, sorcerers and witches. According to the beliefs of that time, witches were considered the culprits of various negative phenomena, such as diseases, crop failures or disasters. They were arrested, and then public trials and executions were carried out, often burning them at the stake.

The crisis situation was aggravated by the constant state of war, widespread pestilence, livestock deaths and natural disasters. Naturally, many people thought about the occult conspiracy of the earthly accomplices of Satan. Moreover, it was not just individuals who were considered the conductors of this conspiracy, but entire "communities of criminals" who, naturally, were guilty of the crimes of their participants. These communities consisted of people who could only do evil – they were "witches" and "warlocks". Acting alone, the "sorcerers", paradoxically, according to the ideas of the people of those times, were endowed with positive abilities. They could not only send diseases, but also treat them. Here is the classification given by the "Instruction for the Interrogation of Witches" (1588): "Witches and witches, unlike ordinary sorcerers and witches, do not act separately, but together: they form a criminal community… While other magicians of their own free will can direct their mysterious power to harm or benefit people — they can, for example, let on, but they can also cure diseases, witches and witches do only exceptionally malicious deeds. They owe him their contract with the unclean" [Speransky, 1906, 15].

From the very beginning of its existence, the Catholic Church has attached great importance to the theme of the devil. She believed that the devil actively interferes with people's daily lives, harms them and tries to distance them from God. Therefore, Christian theologians have created a huge amount of literature on this issue [Gregorovius, 2008]. Since the middle of the 13th century, the Catholic Church has been actively discussing the phenomenon of man's voluntary union with the devil. Pope John XXII (1244-1249-11334), who himself was suspected of being connected with the forces of darkness, noted his position [Orthodox Encyclopedia, 2010, 551, 561-567].

Pundits drew knowledge to combat heresy and witchcraft from the library fund. Some librarians have worked directly on this issue within the library walls. In his book Gabriel Naudet (1578-1641), author of "Advis pour dresser une biblioth?que (Instructions for the creation of a library)" (1627), compiled a bibliography of the names of famous people involved in cases related to witchcraft [Naud?, 1627]. With deep knowledge of classical literature, philosophy and medicine, Gabriel Naudet began working as a librarian in Rome under Cardinals Giovanni Francesco Banini (1578-1641) and Francesco Barberini (1597-1679). Naudet, who traveled extensively in Europe, paid special attention to collecting unique works to create the first library, which formed the basis of the Paris palace of Cardinal and Minister Jules Mazarin (1602-1662). At Mazarin's request, Naudet collected thousands of rare books and manuscripts. The entire collection is kept in the National Library of France. Node published works by Italian Renaissance writers such as Leo Arachius, Gerolamo Cordano, Girolamo Lorario and Agostino Nifo. His role in spreading the ideas of these writers in France was significant. The collection of Mazarin's books collected by Naudet exceeded 40,000 volumes. However, in 1651, after the outbreak of war and Mazarin's flight from Paris, they were sold by order of the Paris Parliament. The sale was gradual, which made it difficult for Mazarin to resume his collection. The remaining books and manuscripts, together with the Cardinal's Second Library, formed the basis of the modern Mazarin Library at Fornacion University in Paris. In his political writings, Gabriel Naudet adhered to Machiavellianism and believed that the interests of the state justified the violation of certain moral principles. In his most famous treatise, Reflections on a Political Coup (1639), he defended the legality of the massacre of Huguenots on the eve of St. Bartholomew's Day and argued in favor of this point of view.

Node has also written extensively about esotericism and witchcraft. He classified witchcraft into white (healing, protective), black (harmful), "divine" and "natural". The latter category included sciences such as astronomy, chemistry and physics. Another important topic touched upon in the writings of Gabriel Naudet was the teachings of the Rosicrucians: in 1652, Naudet moved to Stockholm to become the court librarian of Queen Christina, but soon returned to France, where he died.

Bull Summis desiderantes affectibus (lat. "With all the strength of my soul") It was issued by Pope Innocent VIII in 1484. In it, he justified the most extensive and brutal measures to find and punish the devil and the guilty. The bull also gave the magistrate inquisitors complete freedom of action. This bull played a key role in the regulation of the witch hunt and the Inquisition in Europe. She gave the inquisitors the authority to arrest, try and punish those who were accused of having relationships with demons and witches without the need for special permits. The Bull Summis desiderantes affectibus became one of the main legal grounds for their actions [Papal Bull Summis desiderantes affectibus, 1484].

Over time, on behalf of the pope, a system of these measures was developed, immortalized in the book Malleus Maleficarum ("Hammer of Witches") [Institutionis, 1487] with references to Holy Scripture. One of the important aspects of this period was the phenomenon of the book Malleus Maleficarum, or "Hammer of the Witches" [Kramer, Sprenger, 1932]. This text is devoted to the study of this phenomenon, its origin, development and consequences. The famous researcher S.G. Lozinsky in his work calls this work fatal [Lozinsky, 1932].

Malleus Maleficarum was written in 1486 by two German Dominican inquisitors Heinrich Instatoris (c. 1430-1505) and Jacob Sprenger (c. 1436-1505). They created this "Witch Reference Book" in order to combat witchcraft and to assert the Church's right to fight it. Instantoris and Sprenger tried in this book to describe how to identify, accuse and condemn such women who, in their opinion, were witches.

Malleus Maleficarum can be called a milestone in the history of witch hunting. This text describes in detail the "symptoms" of a witch and how to identify them, including trials through water, fire and torture, as well as ways to recognize a witch. The book became a practical guide for inquisitors and representatives of the church, which greatly contributed to the massive witch hunts.

This phenomenon existed in many European countries, and witch hunts were especially active in Germany, France and Sweden. Unfortunate women who came under suspicion were tortured and sometimes executed, even if they did not commit any sorcerous acts. Malleus Maleficorum has become a powerful tool for suppressing female sexuality as a symbol of evil and sin.

However, despite its popularity, Malleus Maleficarum has attracted some criticism. There were scientists and spiritual leaders who doubted the truth of what was described in the book. They noted that many confessions under torture were false and that many innocent women had died because of this work. Nevertheless, the work had considerable authority, since the highest censors were pundits of the Faculty of theology of the University of Cologne, many of whom were directly related to the university library, as, in particular, one of the authors of The Hammer of Witches, Jacob Sprenger, who was a professor of theology and dean of the University of Cologne.

Over time, interest in Malleus Maleficorum gradually waned, and the witch hunt lost its power. Many modern researchers are trying to shed light on this period and understand the reasons for a well-organized and massive witch hunt.

Thus, Malleus Maleficarum is an extremely important text for studying the phenomenon of witch hunting. He had a great influence not only on the history and culture of that time, but also on the understanding of the role of women in society.

2. European Libraries

The libraries of Europe were valuable repositories of knowledge and culture. During this period, great libraries and monasteries flourished throughout Europe, collecting and preserving unique manuscripts, ancient texts and valuable books.

One of the most famous libraries of that time was the great Clooney Library, founded in 910 in France. It was a center of intellectual and spiritual life, where scientists and monks gathered to study and exchange books and ideas. The Clooney Library was famous for its collection of manuscripts, including texts from ancient philosophers, sacred writings and rare astronomical calendars.

There were also great libraries in other parts of Europe. For example, in Italy there was the famous Vatican Library, which became the center of Renaissance humanism. Great humanists and scientists gathered here to study ancient texts and ancient Greek philosophical treatises. The Vatican Library was not only a place to store books, but also a place of research and mentoring for many scientists.

In order to meet the demand for knowledge, libraries have used various methods of preserving and distributing books. One of them was the copying technology, with which books with well-preserved text could be reproduced in large numbers. Monks and bookmakers in the monastery's scriptoriums carefully copied texts onto parchment and decorated them using illustrations and miniatures.

The emergence of new printing techniques, such as movable type printing and lithography, at the end of the 15th century, significantly changed the landscape of libraries. Now books could be copied and distributed in much larger numbers, which led to greater access to knowledge.

Libraries were a forge of ideas and knowledge that contributed to the progress and development of culture. Their importance cannot be overestimated, as they served as a bridge between the past and the future, preserving and accumulating knowledge for future generations. Thanks to these libraries, scientists and philosophers were able to continue their research, delve into new ideas and make discoveries. They remain a great source of inspiration and an important aspect of European history.

The first universities appeared in the XII century in rapidly developing cities. These universities grew out of schools attached to bishoprics and private associations of teachers of philosophy, law and medicine. Libraries were organized at these universities. In Italy, already in the XI century, there was a library of the Bologna Law School, which eventually turned into a university. At the same time as this library in Bologna, there was a library of the medical school in Solerno.

In the period from the XII to the beginning of the XVI century, university libraries were established in Paris, Montpellier (France), Oxford and Cambridge (England), Salamanca (Spain) and Lisbon (Portugal); in the XIV century - in the central cities. By the beginning of the XVI century, there were already more than 60 university libraries in Europe.

Libraries became repositories of facts. For example, the National Library of France holds information about a facsimile of a handwritten letter from demons to Asmodeus and Abbot Grandier. The letter is related to the epidemic of obsession that struck the Ursuline community of Loudon Abbey in 1635. During this epidemic, the demons recruited the nobles of southern and western France.

Within the framework of our research, we cannot ignore the issue of the structure of the educational system of the Middle Ages, which included libraries. A powerful new incentive for learning appeared in the late 12th and early 13th centuries in the form of the arrival of new texts that scribes and scientists had to deal with. Latin translations of the medical works of Arab doctors, scientific and philosophical works of Arab and Greek thinkers, and especially Aristotle, penetrated the Latin world. These translations were made by Latin and Greek Christians, as well as Jews and Muslims working in Spain, Sicily and North Africa. While the Western world already had some knowledge of Aristotle's works on logic, thanks to early translations of Boethius, additional works on logic have now appeared in the West, as well as his physics, metaphysics, Soul, Nicomachean ethics, Origin and Decomposition, Meteorites, Heaven, politics and poetics. At the same time, the works of Greek physicists (Hippocrates, Galen) both Muslim and Jewish thinkers (Avicenna, Averroes, Maimonides) were absorbed by the West. The scholastic method, already used in universities, using reason to interpret and reconcile contradictory texts — philosophical, theological, legal, medical — has proved to be a wonderful tool for integrating all these new materials into the Western intellectual tradition. One of the results of this presentation of new material has largely been the reorganization of some humanities disciplines into three new categories: natural philosophy (science), moral philosophy (ethics) and metaphysical philosophy. These subjects, along with logic, were studied at the Faculty of Arts, but were very important at the graduate faculties, especially theology and Medicine, since these teachers and students were educated at the Faculty of Arts for the first time. Medieval scientific treatises were usually written by professors of theology who continued the scientific interests they had developed in the study of natural philosophy. The continuing influence of these three philosophical categories can still be found today in the title of Doctor of Philosophy, a degree usually awarded to people in almost any subject. Strangely enough, for an era known for its architecture, this subject never deserved a place in the curriculum, as did the "technical arts": surgery, agriculture and other types of "practical" knowledge. On the other hand, astrology was not an official part of the unrelated arts, but it received considerable attention from time to time and in various places. This was closely related to astronomy, which was one of the liberal arts, and was generally considered important for medical students, since it was assumed that the movement of the planets had some influence on human physiology and psychology.

The new material also changed the general philosophical and rhetorical orientation of European scientists. Until the 12th century, the Latin Christian world was shaped by the ideas and methods of Plato and Cicero. Both, especially Plato, emphasized the priority of the spiritual over the material. Both wrote in a manner that was meant to be engaging and convincing, not just a logical demonstration. St. Augustine and Boethius both emphasized the reality of the spiritual world, and not the material one, as Plato and Boethius did, like Cicero before him, who retained the manner of conducting a philosophical dispute with the help of relaxed dialogues between friends in the style of Plato. Saint Anselm followed this philosophical and rhetorical tradition. Abelard and Peter Lombard moved away from dialogue in favor of logical argumentation, and this movement was accelerated by the appearance of works by Aristotle, works that read more like textbooks of geometry written in formal technical language, rather than as ordinary conversations of friends. Moreover, Aristotelian philosophy emphasized the reality of the material world and, consequently, the importance of science to a greater extent than did earlier Platonic and Neoplatonic thinkers. Since the popes considered Paris to be the main center of theological research, they made several attempts to restrict the study of natural philosophy (science) in Paris by banning the use of Aristotle's scientific books, but they did so in vain. By the middle of the 13th century, all of Aristotle's famous scientific works had become part of the curriculum. In other cities, popes did not make similar attempts to restrict science. When Pope Gregory IX founded the University of Toulouse (in 1229), he did not impose any restrictions on scientific education, and from the very beginning Oxford had the right to focus on natural sciences and mathematics. Robert Grosseteste (died 1253, while bishop of Lincoln) was a professor of theology there, but his treatises on natural sciences and mathematics attest to Oxford's early emphasis on these subjects. Grossetest's work on optics and the work of those who followed him at Oxford (Roger Bacon (d. c. 1292), John Pecham [d. 1292]) retained their influence over the following centuries [Moore, 22-24].

In medieval universities, books were an integral part of education. At that time, there were no such concepts as "teaching" or "attending lectures"; it was said that teachers "read" certain books, and students "listened" to certain books. Students had to bring books to lectures. Universities had their own printing presses and, unlike monasteries and private printing houses, had a more streamlined production process. Moreover, universities also organized the book trade.

In the 13th century, colleges began to appear as an integral part of university life. They were living quarters for students, often with sleeping and dining rooms and, as a rule, with a chapel. By that time, well-established models of communal living already existed. These were monasteries for men and women, which usually had dormitories or separate cells, a common room for eating and a chapel. There were also charitable institutions called dormitories, which were created to provide food and shelter for travelers, the destitute or the sick, and often imitated (recreated) the structure of monasteries. There were canonical chapters, that is, clergymen who lived a communal life like monks, but worked among the faithful, and did not stay in the monastery to "pray and work." Some of these chapters, for example, Saint-Victor and Saint-Genevieve in Paris, were independent educational centers. All these institutions have served as a model for the development of colleges associated with universities.

At the beginning of the 13th century, another new element appeared in the universities of Europe: monks, in particular, Dominicans and Franciscans. The monks were similar to the monks in that they led a communal lifestyle, and the canons in that they worked among people. But these orders worked outside the usual diocesan structure, turning to the pope and their own spirit for guidance, rather than to local bishops. The activities of these monks did not necessarily have to lead to education, but the Dominicans (a movement founded by St. Dominic, died in 1221), which began by fighting heresy through sermons, soon appeared at universities, lived in their own communal houses and in some cases taught their students. St. Francis of Assisi (d. 1226), the founder of the Franciscans, opposed education for his followers, but soon his preferences were discarded, and Franciscan houses began to appear in university towns.

The community houses of the monks served as another model for university colleges. By 1200, at least one dormitory for poor students already existed in Paris, and the example of the monks contributed to the creation of similar houses for other students. Soon, some colleges began to provide training in them for residents of the city. This is how another common feature of university life arose - the university college, which has acquired the same diverse forms as universities. One college became particularly famous - the Sorbonne in Paris, founded in 1257.

In the universities of southern Europe, colleges played a less important role, but in Oxford, colleges began to play a major role, while their activities were practically not regulated by the leading university. Well-endowed colleges could free their students from all financial worries.

Each of Oxford's colleges had its own character, starting with Merton in 1264, then the University, Exeter, Oriel and Queens.

Cambridge followed a similar pattern. Colleges usually provided "scholarships" for advanced students with limited income; scholarship recipients were called "fellows" of the college, which placed them one step above ordinary students.

When applying to colleges, family or regional affiliation was often taken into account, for example, at the Spanish college at the University of Bologna, preference was given to applicants from the Iberian Peninsula. And everywhere, well-connected students always had an advantage that was used to the advantage of college applicants. For the poorest students, the best option was to go to college as a servant of wealthy masters and students, as was the case with Isaac Newton in the 17th century [Moore, 2019, 24-25].

The libraries of the Universities of Paris and Oxford had an abundance of valuable resources. More secular and scientific literature was presented here, compared to the church. These libraries even had books that were feared in feudal society. The rules of libraries provided for strict restrictions on the issuance of such works: "Books with condemned teachings and texts that pose a danger to reading should be available only to professors of theology. However, they should use these materials only if argumentation or dispute is necessary. The professor himself should not read them out of pure curiosity or for fear of being influenced by them."

The standard teaching method in all European universities consisted of listening to lectures on prescribed texts, as well as listening to and participating in debates. The lectures covered the main texts that should be understood, and the debates taught students to analyze, challenge and defend the ideas that were learned in the lectures. In his work, written in the middle of the 13th century, a professor of law in Bologna described the manner in which he would give his lectures on Roman law:

"First, I'll give you a summary of each title before I move on to the text. Secondly, I will state the meaning of each law well, clearly and in the best terms I can. Third, I will read the text to correct it. Fourth, I will briefly repeat the meaning. Fifth, I will resolve conflicts by adding common questions... and subtle and useful differences and issues with solutions, as far as divine Providence will help me. And if any law deserves revision because of its prominence or complexity, I will save it for the day's review" (Thorndike, 1962).

At first, the students copied the texts in the form in which they were read by the teachers. But the rapid expansion of universities created commercial opportunities that merchants quickly took advantage of. There were bookstores where manuscripts were copied and copies were sold, but even more useful to poor students in thirteenth-century Paris were peciae-parts of books that students could rent, copy, and then return to the store. However, the best choice for the poorest students was to rewrite the text as the lecturer read it.

Students who received copies of the texts and studied them would be best prepared for the debates. But even without written texts, medieval scholars and craftsmen were not deprived of resources. When studying rhetoric, students enrolled in the humanities program usually undergo memory training. Scholars had access to ancient treatises on the subject, treatises by Cicero and others, and in the 12th and later centuries, masters wrote their own treatises on memory for the benefit of students. In ancient Greece and Rome, it was expected that an educated citizen would be able to address his fellow citizens with a consistent and convincing public speech, and this skill depended on a well-trained memory. In the Middle Ages, trained memory was also of great benefit to scientists, both beginners and professors. Busy debating or writing their own treatises, scientists who could readily cite suitable quotations from the Bible, from the sayings of Peter of Lombardy, from the "Code of Civil Law" of Justinian, or from the writings of Aristotle, or the Greek physician Galen (d. c. 200) enjoyed a great advantage over less resourceful scientists.

The fundamental method of memorization was to place the elements to be memorized in an imaginary grid—perhaps numerical, perhaps architectural, perhaps chronological. One can imagine the ten commandments, each of which is located in each of the ten different market stalls, and in each kiosk there is some kind of action resembling the commandment - the more outlandish the image, the more likely it is to be remembered. After memorizing, the location and features of the kiosk should allow you to read the commandments in any order.

Memory aids were usually included in written materials. Dividing each Gospel into numbered chapters, as was customary in the thirteenth century, helped to remember. The same applied to sketches and illustrated manuscripts. Marginal notes and decorations made it easier for the reader to remember the contents of the page by associating the content with marginalia. This was a kind of advantage enjoyed by modern readers, associating the author and content of a book with its size and artful cover design — an advantage that is disappearing today, since highly variable texts usually appear in electronic rather than printed form [Moore, 2019, 20-22].

The issuance of books from university libraries was very important. Library rules were developed in order to keep an orderly record of books issued for reading outside the library. This was necessary in order to prevent the possibility of replacing valuable manuscripts with less valuable ones that might look the same. As a rule, some libraries divided their collections into two separate collections so that manuscripts could be given to readers to read at home. An example is the Cambridge University Library. Books that were read in the library were securely chained to the lectern, and in the catalogs of university libraries, starting from the XIII and XIV centuries, the mark "Chained" is often found, meaning that this book cannot be issued outside the library.

The preface to the catalog often contained an explanation of its purpose. For example, the author of the first catalog of the Sorbonne library (1289) noted that the extensive collection contains many manuscripts with damaged scrolls and title pages, and without such a catalog the library will not be able to reveal its riches. It was only thanks to the catalog that all students of science could find out what items are stored in the library, who wrote them and what they are called.

The universities of the Middle Ages concentrated all the science of that time. The prevailing scholasticism, which limited and slowed down the development of science, also hindered the growth of the prestige of university libraries.

But the late Middle Ages (1300-1500) was a traumatic period for the whole of Europe. Climate change has led to food shortages and even famine. In 1348, the bubonic plague spread from Italy across Europe, reducing the population by about a third and recurring with less intensity about every ten years for the next century or so. Shortages of food and labor led to higher prices, and those workers who survived the plague demanded higher wages, causing social unrest such as the Jacquerie in France (1358), the peasant uprising in England (1381) and other urban uprisings in the Netherlands and northern Italy. At the same time, Europeans suffered from the “Hundred Years' War” between France and England and the Hussite wars in Bohemia at the beginning of the XV century. Even interruptions in these wars did little to help, as unemployed mercenaries would then live outside the country, exacerbating the suffering of the local population.

At a time when Europeans were perhaps most in need of religious solace, there were fundamental changes in the structure of the church. In 1309, the Pope settled "temporarily" in Avignon in the south of France. This temporary stay lasted until 1376, when things soon got even worse. After returning to Rome, the pope died in 1378. Two rival groups of cardinals elected two popes, one of whom settled in Rome and the other returned to Avignon. To make matters worse, the third pope was elected in 1409. The resulting “Great Western Schism” lasted from 1378 to 1415. Meanwhile, different regions of Europe were choosing sides, and ordinary Christians could only hope that their region was on the right side. Were their bishops really bishops, their priests really priests, and were the sacraments on which their salvation could depend really valid?

The split had an immediate financial impact on universities, as many students and professors depended on income from ecclesiastical positions called prebends awarded by the Pope or local church authorities. If the positions were awarded by the "antipope", would their income disappear until the split stopped? If a position were opened and rival popes awarded it to rival candidates, what would happen next? Moreover, since many universities were organized according to "nations", they often broke up following the alliances of their home regions. Most of the faculty in Paris supported the Avignon popes, but German professors left Paris for universities that supported the popes. This development was especially devastating for the University of Prague, which by the middle of the 14th century had become a major center of learning. Czech students and teachers in Prague followed their king's example by recognizing the Pope, who was elected in Pisa in 1409, while German students and teachers supported the Pope in Rome. That year, German teachers and students completely left Prague and founded a new university in Leipzig. As a result, the University of Prague has become a regional educational institution of much lesser importance. Other European universities have suffered similar, albeit less devastating consequences.

During this period, there were also strong manifestations of dissatisfaction with the doctrine, provoked by university professors. John Wycliffe (died 1384) was a clergyman and Oxford theologian who was shocked by the wealth and power of the clergy and monks, from the Pope onwards. He rejected the authority and sacramental authority of the traditional priesthood and turned to the Bible as the true authority, anticipating the arguments of later leaders of the Protestant Reformation. Similar ideas were promoted in the Czech Republic by two professors of theology at the University of Prague, John Huss (d. 1415) and Jerome of Prague (d. 1416), both of whom were burned as heretics after vigorous and fierce debate throughout the university world. University theologians, especially in Paris, have played a key role in defining orthodoxy and in proposing solutions to end the schism [Moore, 2019, 31-33].

The results of the study

Based on the above, it is possible to assert the direct influence of European libraries on the spiritual life of the population, in particular, the "witch hunt". A.Ya. Kozhurin's research cannot be considered complete without including information about this mutual influence. Science and the library exist in a single temporal chaos and cannot be separated in any study, as happened, in particular, with A.Ya. Kozhurin in his scientific work.

Summarizing the above, we can state the following:

1. The library is inseparable in its functionality from the scientific life of any country, no matter what time we would take as a basis;

2. Libraries directly influenced the "witch hunt":

a) scientific men drew knowledge to fight heretics and witches from library collections

b) scientific men created scientific works on the "witch hunt" on the basis of library collections and using the authority of university libraries

c) some of the people involved in the "witch hunt" were librarians themselves

d) libraries became repositories of written "evidence" of complicity with diabolical forces

e) libraries were an integral part of the educational system of that time, becoming an educational tool for future fighters against heresies and witches

f) Church schisms affected the educational process and organization, as well as libraries financially and morally.

Conclusion

During the time transition of the epochs, rumors in Europe about black magic were inevitably associated with the undermining of the income and influence of the clergy, who certainly assumed the role of the main witch hunter. The internal schisms of the Church were fueled by rumors and legends about the tireless activities of black sorcerers, and these feuds, artfully accompanied by religious wars, were distinguished by unsurpassed cruelty. After all, ideological battles combined with military actions were an ideal way to control the masses, as well as an excellent way to disavow any alternative views.

Mystical rituals and demonic cults sought to gain a firm foothold in the collective consciousness, since their participants saw demons as beings endowed with divine power, much more powerful than the Almighty himself, with a wider range of possibilities for fulfilling their hidden desires.

The minting of signs, the use of sealing seals, inscriptions and forged written documents have become irrefutable evidence of the presence of witches on earth. The books, which contained ancient recipes and magic formulas, served as an important proof, full of secrets and knowledge related to the dark forces.

Representatives of the clergy used such facts to usurp control over the chaotic and dangerous forces of black magic. They wanted to use this powerful instrumentation to achieve their selfish goals, and either enslave the black sorcerers or consign them to eternal oblivion. Medieval libraries played an important role here, the funds of which were skillfully and successfully used by fighters against witchcraft.

Thanks

The author expresses his deep gratitude to the scientific supervisor, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor Y.S. Obidina.